مقایسه اثربخشی شوخ‌طبعی درمانی و بازتوانی شناختی بر بی‌قراری و بی‌تفاوتی در مردان سالمند دچار اختلال شناختی خفیف

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 گروه روانشناسی سلامت، دانشکده روانشناسی، واحد تنکابن، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تنکابن، ایران

2 گروه روانشناسی، دانشکده روانشناسی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران

چکیده

سالمندان نیاز به توجه و مراقبت پزشکی و روان‌پزشکی مطلوب دارند، و انتخاب رویکرد مناسب درمانی برای مراقبت‌های روان‌شناختی ایشان به ویژه در سالمندان دچار اختلال شناختی در بهبود علائم روان‌شناختی و سلامت آنها اثرگذار خواهد بود. بنابراین، هدف این پژوهش مقایسۀ اثربخشی شوخ‌طبعی درمانی و بازتوانی شناختی بر بی‌قراری و بی‌تفاوتی مردان سالمند مبتلا به اختلال شناختی خفیف بود. روش پژوهش نیمه‌آزمایشی با طرح پیش‌آزمون-پس‌آزمون با گروه کنترل بود. جامعه آماری شامل تمامی سالمندان مرد دچار اختلال شناختی خفیف و مقیم سراهای سالمندی استان البرز بود. ابتدا آسایشگاه خیریه کهریزک به‌روش نمونه‌گیری هدفمند انتخاب شد، سپس بر اساس ملاک‌های ورود، 51 سالمند انتخاب و به‌طور تصادفی در دو گروه آزمایشی (شوخ‌طبعی و بازتوانی شناختی) و یک گروه کنترل قرار گرفتند. سیاهه بی‌قراری کوهن-منسفیلد، مقیاس بی‌تفاوتی مارین و ارزیابی شناختی مونترال-پایه برای گردآوری داده‌ها استفاده شد. گروه مداخله شوخ‌طبعی، مهارت شوخ‌طبعی مک‌گی و گروه بازتوانی شناختی، راهبردها و فنون بازتوانی شناختی کلی و اوسالیوان را به‌طور مجزا در 8 جلسه 90 دقیقه‌ای دریافت کردند و گروه کنترل در این مدت هیچ مداخله‌ای دریافت نکرد. نتایج تحلیل کواریانس تک متغیری نشان داد مداخله شوخ‌طبعی موجب کاهش بی‌قراری و بی‌تفاوتی شد. بازتوانی شناختی نیز موجب کاهش بی‌قراری و بی‌تفاوتی شد. همچنین شوخ‌طبعی درمانی و بازتوانی شناختی تفاوت معناداری در کاهش بی‌قراری و بی‌تفاوتی نداشتند. بــا توجــه بــه اثــربخشی هر دو مداخله در کاهش بی‌قراری و بی‌تفاوتی در این پژوهش مــی‌توان از این مداخلات برای بهبــود علائم روان‌شناختی، عملکرد فردی و روابــط بیــن فــردی سالمندان مبتلا به اختلال شناختی خفیف اســتفاده کرد.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

The Comparison of the Effectiveness of Humor Therapy and Cognitive Rehabilitation on Agitation and Apathy in the Elderly men with Mild Cognitive Impairment

نویسندگان [English]

  • Zahra Fereidouni Valashejerdi 1
  • Shahnam Abolghasemi 1
  • Javad Khalatbari 1
  • Morteza Tarkhan 2
1 Dept. of Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran
2 Dept. of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran
چکیده [English]

The elderly need proper medical and psychiatric care and attention. So, choosing an appropriate therapeutic method for their psychological care, especially in the elderly with cognitive impairment, will be effective in improving their psychological symptoms and health. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effectiveness of humor therapy and cognitive rehabilitation on agitation and apathy in male elders with mild cognitive impairment. It was a quasi-experimental study with pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population included all male elderly with mild cognitive impairment residing of nursing homes in Alborz province, Iran. At first, Kahrizak Charity Hospice was selected by purposeful sampling method, and then 51 elderly people were selected based on inclusion criteria, and assigned randomly into two experimental groups (humor and cognitive rehabilitation) and one control group. Cohen-Mansfield’s Agitation Inventory, Apathy’s Evaluation Scale and Montreal’s Cognitive Assessment-Basic were used to collect data. The two intervention groups received eight 90-minute sessions of Humor therapy based on the Mcghee’s 7 Humor Habits Program and Kelly and O’Sullivan’s Cognitive Rehabilitation, and the control group did not receive any intervention during this period. The results of univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) revealed that humor therapy reduces agitation and apathy. Moreover, cognitive rehabilitation reduced agitation and apathy. Meanwhile, there was no significant difference between humor therapy and cognitive rehabilitation in terms of reducing agitation and apathy. According to the effectiveness of humor therapy and cognitive rehabilitation in reducing agitation and apathy in this study, these interventions can be applied to improve psychological symptoms, personal functioning and interpersonal relationships in the elderly with mild cognitive impairment.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th edition. Washington, DC: Atmerican Psychiatric Association;
Ang, Y.-S., Lockwood, P., Apps, M. A. J., Muhammed, K., & Husain, M. (2017). Distinct subtypes of apathy revealed by the apathy motivation index. PLOS ONE, 12(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169938
Brodaty, H., & Burns, K. (2012). Nonpharmacological management of apathy in dementia: A Systematic review. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(7), 549–564. https://doi.org/10.1097/jgp.0b013e31822be242
Brodaty, H., Low, L.-F., Liu, Z., Fletcher, J., Roast, J., Goodenough, B., & Chenoweth, L. (2014). Successful ingredients in the SMILE study: Resident, Staff, and Management Factors Influence the Effects of Humor Therapy in Residential Aged Care. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(12), 1427–1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2013.08.005
Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., Felicetti, T., Laatsch, L., Harley, J. P., Bergquist, T., Azulay, J., Cantor, J., Ashman, T. (2011). Evidence-Based cognitive rehabilitation: Updated review of the Literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.11.015
Cohen-Mansfield, J. (1991). Instruction Manual for THE Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI). The Research Institute omf the Hebrew Home of Greater Washington: USA. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/11662384/
Corrigan, J.D., Mysiw, W.J. (1988). Agitation following traumatic head injury: equivocal evidence for a discrete stage of cognitive recovery. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 69(7), 487-492. PMID: 3389986
Flicker, C., Ferris, S. H., & Reisberg, B. (1991). Mild cognitive impairment in the elderly: Predictors of dementia. Neurology, 41(7), 1006–1006. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.41.7.1006
Gelkopf, M. (2011). The use of humor in serious mental illness: A Review. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Article 342837. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nep106
Giuli, C., Papa, R., Lattanzio, F., & Postacchini, D. (2016). The Effects of cognitive training for elderly: Results from my mind project. Rejuvenation Research, 19(6), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1089/rej.2015.1791
Gomez-Soria, L., Peralta-Marrupe, P., & Plo, F. (2020). Cognitive stimulation program in mild cognitive impairment: A Randomized controlled trial. Dementia & Neuropsychologia. 14(2), 110-117. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-02000
Goodenough, B., Low, L.-F., Casey, A.-N., Chenoweth, L., Fleming, R., Spitzer, P., Brodaty, H. (2012). Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of humor therapy in residential care: the Sydney Multisite Intervention of LaughterBosses and ElderClowns (SMILE). International Psychogeriatrics, 24(12), 2037–2044. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1041610212000683
Griffiths Aw, Albertyn ChP, Burnley NL, Byron Creese B, Walwyn R, Holloway I, Safarikova J, Claire A Surr. (2020). Validation of the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory Observational CMAI-O tool. International Psychogeriatric Association. 321, 75-85, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610219000279.
Holtzer, R., Tang, M.-X., Devanand, D. P., Albert, S. M., Wegesin, D. J., Marder, K., Bell, K., Albert, M., Brandt, J., & Stern, Y. (2003). Psychopathological features in Alzheimer’s Disease: Course and relationship with cognitive status. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 51(7), 953–960. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2389.2003.51308.x
Jean, L., Bergeron, M.-È., Thivierge, S., & Simard, M. (2010). Cognitive intervention programs for individuals with mild cognitive impairment: Systematic review of the literature. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(4), 281–296. https://doi.org/10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181c37ce9
Kelly, M.E., & O’Sullivan, M. (2015). Strategies and techniques for cognitive rehabilitation: Manual for healthcare professionals working with individuals with cognitive impairment. Department of Environment, Community and Local Government. https;//alzheimer.ie/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2015-Cognitive-Rehabilitation.pdf
Kolanowski, A., Litaker, M., Buettner, L., Moeller, J., & Costa Jr., P. T. (2011). A Randomized clinical trial of theory-based activities for the behavioral symptoms of dementia in nursing home residents. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59(6), 1032–1041. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03449.x
Lanctôt, K. L., Agüera-Ortiz, L., Brodaty, H., Francis, P. T., Geda, Y. E., Ismail, Z., Marshall, G. A., Mortby, M. E., Onyike, Ch. U., Padal, P. R., Politis, A. M., Rosenberg, P. B., Siegel, E., Sultzer, D. L. Abraham, E. H. (2017). Apathy associated with neurocognitive disorders: Recent progress and future directions. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 13(1), 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2016.05.008
Lázaro-Perlado, F. (2019). Apathy; A Conceptual review. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 15(2). 88-104. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573400515666190306150306
Le-Heron, C., Apps, M.A.J., Husain, M. (2018). The anatomy of apathy; A Neurocognitive framework for amotivated behaviour. Neuropsychologia. 11)8(; 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.003. Epub 2017 Jul 8.
Lindenmayer, J.P. (2000). The pathophysiology of agitation. The Journal of clinical psychiatry. 61Suppl. 14; 5–10. PMID: 11154018.
Low, L.-F., Goodenough, B., Fletcher, J., Xu, K., Casey, A.-N., Chenoweth, L., Fleming, R., Spitzer, P., Bell, J.-P., Brodaty, H. (2014). The Effects of humor therapy on nursing home residents measured using observational methods: The SMILE cluster randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(8), 564–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2014.03.017
Marin RS. (1990). Differential diagnosis and classification of apathy. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.147.1.22
Marin RS. (1991). Apathy: a neuropsychiatric syndrome. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 3(3), 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.3.3.243
Marin, R.S., Biedrzycki, R.C., & Firinciogullari, S. (1991). Reliability and validity of the apathy evaluation scale. Psychiatry Research, 382, 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-17819190040-v
Marshall, G. A., Donovan, N. J., Lorius, N., Gidicsin, C. M., Maye, J., Pepin, L. C., Becker, J. A., Amariglio, R. E., Rentz, D. M., Sperling, R. A., Johnson, K. A. (2013). Apathy Is associated with increased Amyloid burden in mild cognitive impairment. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 25(4), 302–307. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12060156
Martin, R. A. (2001). Humor, laughter, and physical health: Methodological issues and research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(4), 504–519. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.504
McGhee, P. (2010). Humor as survival training for a stressed-out world: The 7 humor habits program, Bloomington, Indiana. https://www.amazon.com/Humor-Survival-Training-Stressed-Out-World/dp/1452021813
Montoya-Murillo, G., Ibarretxe-Bilbao, N., Peña, J., & Ojeda, N. (2019). Effects of cognitive rehabilitation on cognition, apathy, quality of life, and subjective complaints in the elderly: A Randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 28(5), 518-529. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jagp.2019.10.011.
Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., … Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A Brief Screening Tool for Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
Njomboro, P., Humphreys, G.W, Deb, S. (2014). Exploring social cognition in patients with apathy following acquired brain damage, BMC Neurology. 14(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-14-18
Pacciardi, B., Mauri, M., Cargioli, C., Belli, S., Cotugno, B., Di Paolo, L., & Pini, S. (2013). Issues in the management of acute agitation: How much current guidelines consider safety? Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4(26), 1-10.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00026
Petersen, R.C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01388.x
Raimo, S., Trojano, L., Spitaleri, D., Petretta, V., Grossi, D., & Santangelo, G. (2014). Apathy in multiple sclerosis: A validation study of the apathy evaluation scale. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 347(1-2), 295–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2014.10.027
 Rozzini, L., Costardi, D., Chilovi, B. V., Franzoni, S., Trabucchi, M., & Padovani, A. (2007). Efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in patients with mild cognitive impairment treated with cholinesterase inhibitors. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(4), 356–360. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1681
 Sachdev, P. S., Lipnicki, D. M., Kochan, N. A., Crawford, J. D., Thalamuthu, A., Gavin Andrews, G., Brayne, C., Matthews, F.E., Stephan, C.M., Andrews, G. (2015). The Prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in diverse geographical and ethnocultural regions: The COSMIC Collaboration. PLOS ONE, 10(11), 1-19. Article e0142388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142388
Saleh, A. A., Alkholy, R. S. A. E. H. A., Khalaf, O. O., Sabry, N. A., Amer, H., El-Jaafary, S., & Khalil, M. A. E. F. (2018). Validation of montreal cognitive assessment-basic in a sample of elderly Egyptians with neurocognitive disorders. Aging & Mental Health, 23(5), 551-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1428936
Shibata M, Terasawa Y, Umeda S. (2014). Integration of cognitive and affective networks in humor comprehension. Neuropsychologia, 65(1):137-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.10.02
Skidmore, E.R., Dawson, D.R., Butters, M.A., Grattan, E.S., Juengst, S.B., Whyte, E.M., Begley, A., Holm, M.B., & Becker, J.T. (2014). Strategy training shows promise for addressing disability in the first 6 months after stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 29(7), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968314562113
Skidmore, E.R., Whyte, E.M., Butters, M.A., Terhorst, L., & Reynolds, C.F. (2015). Strategy training during inpatient rehabilitation may prevent apathy symptoms after acute stroke. PM&R, 7(6), 562–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2014.12.010
Sultanoff, S.M. (2013). Integrating humor into psychotherapy; Research, theory, and the necessary conditions for the presence of therapeutic humor in helping relationships. The Humanistic Psychologist, 41(4), 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2013.796953
World Health Organization. (2018). Ageing and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
 Yim, J. (2016). Therapeutic Benefits of Laughter in Mental Health: A Theoretical Review. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, 239(3), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.239.243
Zare, M., Shayeghian, Z., Birashk, B., Azizeh-Afkham, E. (2012). Reliability, validity and factor analysis of Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI). Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, 18(1), 67-73. http://eprints.bpums.ac.ir/1253/1/ijpcp-v18n1p67-fa.pdf9. [Persian]

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Humor therapy
  • cognitive rehabilitation
  • agitation
  • apathy
  • mild cognitive impairment
زارع. م.، شایقیان. ز.، بیرشک. ب.، و افخم ابراهیمی. ‌ع. (1391). پایایی، روایی، و تحلیل عاملی پرسشنامه بی‌قراری کوهن- منسفیلدCMAI . مجله روانپزشکی و روانشناسی بالینی ایران، 18(1)، 67-73.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th edition. Washington, DC: Atmerican Psychiatric Association;
Ang, Y.-S., Lockwood, P., Apps, M. A. J., Muhammed, K., & Husain, M. (2017). Distinct subtypes of apathy revealed by the apathy motivation index. PLOS ONE, 12(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169938
Brodaty, H., & Burns, K. (2012). Nonpharmacological management of apathy in dementia: A Systematic review. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(7), 549–564. https://doi.org/10.1097/jgp.0b013e31822be242
Brodaty, H., Low, L.-F., Liu, Z., Fletcher, J., Roast, J., Goodenough, B., & Chenoweth, L. (2014). Successful ingredients in the SMILE study: Resident, Staff, and Management Factors Influence the Effects of Humor Therapy in Residential Aged Care. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(12), 1427–1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2013.08.005
Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., Felicetti, T., Laatsch, L., Harley, J. P., Bergquist, T., Azulay, J., Cantor, J., Ashman, T. (2011). Evidence-Based cognitive rehabilitation: Updated review of the Literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.11.015
Cohen-Mansfield, J. (1991). Instruction Manual for THE Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI). The Research Institute omf the Hebrew Home of Greater Washington: USA. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/11662384/
Corrigan, J.D., Mysiw, W.J. (1988). Agitation following traumatic head injury: equivocal evidence for a discrete stage of cognitive recovery. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 69(7), 487-492. PMID: 3389986
Flicker, C., Ferris, S. H., & Reisberg, B. (1991). Mild cognitive impairment in the elderly: Predictors of dementia. Neurology, 41(7), 1006–1006. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.41.7.1006
Gelkopf, M. (2011). The use of humor in serious mental illness: A Review. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Article 342837. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nep106
Giuli, C., Papa, R., Lattanzio, F., & Postacchini, D. (2016). The Effects of cognitive training for elderly: Results from my mind project. Rejuvenation Research, 19(6), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1089/rej.2015.1791
Gomez-Soria, L., Peralta-Marrupe, P., & Plo, F. (2020). Cognitive stimulation program in mild cognitive impairment: A Randomized controlled trial. Dementia & Neuropsychologia. 14(2), 110-117. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-02000
Goodenough, B., Low, L.-F., Casey, A.-N., Chenoweth, L., Fleming, R., Spitzer, P., Brodaty, H. (2012). Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of humor therapy in residential care: the Sydney Multisite Intervention of LaughterBosses and ElderClowns (SMILE). International Psychogeriatrics, 24(12), 2037–2044. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1041610212000683
Griffiths Aw, Albertyn ChP, Burnley NL, Byron Creese B, Walwyn R, Holloway I, Safarikova J, Claire A Surr. (2020). Validation of the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory Observational CMAI-O tool. International Psychogeriatric Association. 321, 75-85, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610219000279.
Holtzer, R., Tang, M.-X., Devanand, D. P., Albert, S. M., Wegesin, D. J., Marder, K., Bell, K., Albert, M., Brandt, J., & Stern, Y. (2003). Psychopathological features in Alzheimer’s Disease: Course and relationship with cognitive status. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 51(7), 953–960. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2389.2003.51308.x
Jean, L., Bergeron, M.-È., Thivierge, S., & Simard, M. (2010). Cognitive intervention programs for individuals with mild cognitive impairment: Systematic review of the literature. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(4), 281–296. https://doi.org/10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181c37ce9
Kelly, M.E., & O’Sullivan, M. (2015). Strategies and techniques for cognitive rehabilitation: Manual for healthcare professionals working with individuals with cognitive impairment. Department of Environment, Community and Local Government. https;//alzheimer.ie/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2015-Cognitive-Rehabilitation.pdf
Kolanowski, A., Litaker, M., Buettner, L., Moeller, J., & Costa Jr., P. T. (2011). A Randomized clinical trial of theory-based activities for the behavioral symptoms of dementia in nursing home residents. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59(6), 1032–1041. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03449.x
Lanctôt, K. L., Agüera-Ortiz, L., Brodaty, H., Francis, P. T., Geda, Y. E., Ismail, Z., Marshall, G. A., Mortby, M. E., Onyike, Ch. U., Padal, P. R., Politis, A. M., Rosenberg, P. B., Siegel, E., Sultzer, D. L. Abraham, E. H. (2017). Apathy associated with neurocognitive disorders: Recent progress and future directions. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 13(1), 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2016.05.008
Lázaro-Perlado, F. (2019). Apathy; A Conceptual review. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 15(2). 88-104. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573400515666190306150306
Le-Heron, C., Apps, M.A.J., Husain, M. (2018). The anatomy of apathy; A Neurocognitive framework for amotivated behaviour. Neuropsychologia. 11)8(; 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.003. Epub 2017 Jul 8.
Lindenmayer, J.P. (2000). The pathophysiology of agitation. The Journal of clinical psychiatry. 61Suppl. 14; 5–10. PMID: 11154018.
Low, L.-F., Goodenough, B., Fletcher, J., Xu, K., Casey, A.-N., Chenoweth, L., Fleming, R., Spitzer, P., Bell, J.-P., Brodaty, H. (2014). The Effects of humor therapy on nursing home residents measured using observational methods: The SMILE cluster randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(8), 564–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2014.03.017
Marin RS. (1990). Differential diagnosis and classification of apathy. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.147.1.22
Marin RS. (1991). Apathy: a neuropsychiatric syndrome. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 3(3), 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.3.3.243
Marin, R.S., Biedrzycki, R.C., & Firinciogullari, S. (1991). Reliability and validity of the apathy evaluation scale. Psychiatry Research, 382, 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-17819190040-v
Marshall, G. A., Donovan, N. J., Lorius, N., Gidicsin, C. M., Maye, J., Pepin, L. C., Becker, J. A., Amariglio, R. E., Rentz, D. M., Sperling, R. A., Johnson, K. A. (2013). Apathy Is associated with increased Amyloid burden in mild cognitive impairment. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 25(4), 302–307. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12060156
Martin, R. A. (2001). Humor, laughter, and physical health: Methodological issues and research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(4), 504–519. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.504
McGhee, P. (2010). Humor as survival training for a stressed-out world: The 7 humor habits program, Bloomington, Indiana. https://www.amazon.com/Humor-Survival-Training-Stressed-Out-World/dp/1452021813
Montoya-Murillo, G., Ibarretxe-Bilbao, N., Peña, J., & Ojeda, N. (2019). Effects of cognitive rehabilitation on cognition, apathy, quality of life, and subjective complaints in the elderly: A Randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 28(5), 518-529. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jagp.2019.10.011.
Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., … Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A Brief Screening Tool for Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
Njomboro, P., Humphreys, G.W, Deb, S. (2014). Exploring social cognition in patients with apathy following acquired brain damage, BMC Neurology. 14(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-14-18
Pacciardi, B., Mauri, M., Cargioli, C., Belli, S., Cotugno, B., Di Paolo, L., & Pini, S. (2013). Issues in the management of acute agitation: How much current guidelines consider safety? Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4(26), 1-10.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00026
Petersen, R.C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01388.x
Raimo, S., Trojano, L., Spitaleri, D., Petretta, V., Grossi, D., & Santangelo, G. (2014). Apathy in multiple sclerosis: A validation study of the apathy evaluation scale. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 347(1-2), 295–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2014.10.027
 Rozzini, L., Costardi, D., Chilovi, B. V., Franzoni, S., Trabucchi, M., & Padovani, A. (2007). Efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in patients with mild cognitive impairment treated with cholinesterase inhibitors. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(4), 356–360. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.1681
 Sachdev, P. S., Lipnicki, D. M., Kochan, N. A., Crawford, J. D., Thalamuthu, A., Gavin Andrews, G., Brayne, C., Matthews, F.E., Stephan, C.M., Andrews, G. (2015). The Prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in diverse geographical and ethnocultural regions: The COSMIC Collaboration. PLOS ONE, 10(11), 1-19. Article e0142388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142388
Saleh, A. A., Alkholy, R. S. A. E. H. A., Khalaf, O. O., Sabry, N. A., Amer, H., El-Jaafary, S., & Khalil, M. A. E. F. (2018). Validation of montreal cognitive assessment-basic in a sample of elderly Egyptians with neurocognitive disorders. Aging & Mental Health, 23(5), 551-557. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1428936
Shibata M, Terasawa Y, Umeda S. (2014). Integration of cognitive and affective networks in humor comprehension. Neuropsychologia, 65(1):137-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.10.02
Skidmore, E.R., Dawson, D.R., Butters, M.A., Grattan, E.S., Juengst, S.B., Whyte, E.M., Begley, A., Holm, M.B., & Becker, J.T. (2014). Strategy training shows promise for addressing disability in the first 6 months after stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 29(7), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968314562113
Skidmore, E.R., Whyte, E.M., Butters, M.A., Terhorst, L., & Reynolds, C.F. (2015). Strategy training during inpatient rehabilitation may prevent apathy symptoms after acute stroke. PM&R, 7(6), 562–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2014.12.010
Sultanoff, S.M. (2013). Integrating humor into psychotherapy; Research, theory, and the necessary conditions for the presence of therapeutic humor in helping relationships. The Humanistic Psychologist, 41(4), 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2013.796953
World Health Organization. (2018). Ageing and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
 Yim, J. (2016). Therapeutic Benefits of Laughter in Mental Health: A Theoretical Review. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, 239(3), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.239.243
Zare, M., Shayeghian, Z., Birashk, B., Azizeh-Afkham, E. (2012). Reliability, validity and factor analysis of Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI). Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, 18(1), 67-73. http://eprints.bpums.ac.ir/1253/1/ijpcp-v18n1p67-fa.pdf9. [Persian]