The Effectiveness of Resistance Training on Cardiovascular Functional Indices and Perceived Stress in Older Adults

Abstract
Background: This study aimed to examine the effects of a resistance training program on cardiovascular functional indices and perceived stress in older women.
Method: A quasi-experimental design with a pretest–posttest and control group was employed. The sample consisted of 30 women aged 60 to 75 years who were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. The experimental group participated in a 6‑week resistance training program, three sessions per week, at an intensity of 60–70%, while the control group continued their usual daily activities without any exercise intervention. Cardiovascular indices, including systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, resting heart rate, and rate–pressure product, were measured 48 hours before and after the intervention. Perceived stress was assessed using Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale. Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS 25.
Results: Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, resting heart rate, and rate–pressure product decreased significantly in the resistance training group compared with the control group (p ≤ .05). Perceived stress scores also showed a significant reduction in the resistance training group (p ≤ .05).
Conclusion: The findings indicate that moderate‑intensity resistance training can serve as a safe and effective intervention for improving cardiovascular functional indices and reducing perceived stress in older women. These results highlight the important role of resistance training in promoting physical and psychological well‑being in older adults, as well as its potential application in preventive and cardiac rehabilitation programs.
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
 Introduction
Aging is accompanied by extensive physiological, psychological, and functional changes that may increase the risk of chronic conditions, including hypertension and elevated perceived stress. Cardiovascular functional indices such as systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, mean arterial pressure, and rate–pressure product are recognized as major determinants of cardiovascular health in older adults. Moreover, perceived stress is directly associated with exacerbated physiological responses and increased cardiac workload. Given the mobility limitations and adverse effects associated with long-term pharmacological treatment in later life, non-pharmacological approaches such as resistance training using TheraBand elastic bands may serve as safe, cost-effective, and feasible interventions for improving cardiovascular indices and reducing perceived stress. Although previous studies have supported the beneficial effects of this type of exercise, limited research has simultaneously examined its impact on both hemodynamic indices and perceived stress among Iranian older women. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the effects of a six-week TheraBand resistance training program on cardiovascular functional indices and perceived stress in older women.
Method
The present study employed a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with a control group. The study population consisted of women aged 60–75 years residing in Eyvan City during the first half of 2025. Thirty eligible volunteers were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 15) or the control group (n = 15). Inclusion criteria were: age between 60 and 75 years, obtaining a score above the mean on the Perceived Stress Scale, absence of medications affecting cardiovascular function, and physical capability to perform the exercise protocol. Exclusion criteria included cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, renal, respiratory, neurological, psychological, or musculoskeletal disorders, as well as participation in regular physical activity.
Research instruments consisting of Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale (1983), consisting of 14 items with a reported reliability coefficient of 0.84 in Iranian populations, and an Omron digital sphygmomanometer for measuring systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate. Mean arterial pressure was calculated using the standard formula. The experimental group participated in a six-week TheraBand resistance training program conducted three times per week. The training protocol consisted of six exercises, including chest press, rowing, military press, knee flexion, knee extension, and calf raises, performed in three sets of 10 repetitions at an intensity of 60–70% of one-repetition maximum (1RM). The control group received no intervention during the study period. Prior to statistical analyses, assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances were assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk and Levene’s tests, respectively. Data were analyzed using ANCOVA in SPSS version 25, with the significance level set at p < .05.
Results
Preliminary analyses confirmed the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances, supporting the use of parametric statistical procedures. The results of ANCOVA controlling for pretest effects are presented in Table 1.
The results demonstrated that, after controlling for pretest effects, significant differences were observed between the resistance training and control groups across all study variables, including systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, resting heart rate, perceived stress, and rate–pressure product (p ≤ .05). Effect size values (η²) ranged from .18 to .20, indicating moderate to large intervention effects. Overall, resistance training exerted significant beneficial effects on cardiovascular functional indices and perceived stress among older women.
Conclusion
The findings of the present study indicated that six weeks of TheraBand resistance training resulted in significant reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, resting heart rate, rate–pressure product, and perceived stress among older women. These results suggest that TheraBand resistance training, as a safe and low-cost non-pharmacological intervention, may effectively improve cardiovascular functional indices and reduce psychological stress in this population. From a physiological perspective, the reductions in blood pressure and heart rate following resistance training may be attributed to improved endothelial function and enhanced nitric oxide release, leading to decreased peripheral vascular resistance. Furthermore, increased parasympathetic tone and reduced sympathetic activity resulting from autonomic adaptations may contribute to improved regulation of heart rate and blood pressure. The simultaneous reduction in systolic blood pressure and heart rate directly explains the decrease in rate–pressure product as an indicator of cardiac workload. These adaptations suggest that resistance training may exert cardioprotective effects by reducing myocardial oxygen demand. Regarding the reduction in perceived stress, resistance training may modulate psychological stress responses through increased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-10, improved sleep quality, and enhanced social interaction. Group-based exercise may also foster self-efficacy and social support, thereby reducing feelings of loneliness and improving mood among older adults. Collectively, these findings underscore the importance of resistance exercise as a safe, accessible, and effective strategy for promoting both physical and psychological well-being in later life.
Ethical Consideration
Ethical Code
This article was derived from a Master’s thesis in Exercise Physiology at the University of Ilam and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Ilam (IR.ILAM.REC.1403.018).
Funding
 This study received no external funding.
Authors’ Contributions
F.E.: Software, Validation, Formal analyses, Data Curation; M.N.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - Review & Editing, Project administration, Supervision; H.Sh.: Conceptualization, Writing - Review & Editing.
Conflict of Interest
The authors had no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely appreciate all participants for their valuable cooperation in this study.
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