The Effectiveness of Positive Education Program Based on PERMA Model on Positive Thinking and Life Expectance in Older Adults

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Dept. of Psychology, University of Yasouj, Yasouj, Iran

Abstract

The changes that occur in old age may lead to decreased health and life expectancy in older adults. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a positive education program based on the PERMA model on positive thinking and life expectancy in older men. This was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population included all retired men registered at the Noorabad Mamasani retirement center in 2022. The sample consisted of 40 individuals selected using a convenience sampling method and according to inclusion and exclusion criteria and randomly assigned into two control and experimental groups. The instruments used in this study were the Khodayarifard et al.’s Iranian Positive Thinking Scale and Miller hope Scale. After random selection, the experimental group received ten 90-minute weekly positive educational sessions based on the PERMA model. After the treatment was completed, post-tests were administered to both groups. Univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data. The results showed that the positive education program based on the PERMA model led to an increase in positive thinking and life expectancy in the experimental group compared to the control group. The findings of this research emphasize the importance of the education program based on the PERMA in improving positive thinking and life expectancy in older men. Therefore, it is beneficial to use this education program to support older adults.
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
 
Introduction
Focusing on the good life is not new but remains an important topic as increased well-being can protect against several health problems. Age is particularly crucial to consider when it comes to a good life, as motivations change throughout the lifespan. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a positive education program based on the PERMA model on positive thinking and life expectancy in older men. The PERMA model provides factors for high states of wellbeing, including positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishments. This led to the first research question, which aimed to determine if the PERMA model sufficiently describes a good life, according to perceptions of people at different ages. The second research question aimed to explore whether perceptions of a good life differ among age groups. With the goal of providing positive psychology a tool to help people flourish and promote a good life, Seligman formulated the PERMA model. Initially, he considered “happiness” the major element of a good life in his “Authentic Happiness Theory” (Seligman, 2004), with positive emotion, meaning, and engagement describing happiness. However, research showed that the authentic happiness theory referred more to people's mood than to “happiness” as an overall well-being construct. Later, Seligman (2011) presented his new well-being theory or PERMA model, including five elements: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. To flourish, all these elements must be present, and each can be raised.
Method
This was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population included all retired men registered at the Noorabad Mamasani retirement center in 2022. The sample consisted of 40 individuals randomly selected from volunteers participating in this study, whose scores were two standard deviations below the mean in the measures of the study. They were randomly divided into two groups of control and experimental. The instruments used in this study were the Khodayari Fard et al.’s Iranian positive thinking scale and the Miller hope Scale. The experimental group received ten 90-minute weekly positive education program sessions based on the PERMA model. After the treatment was completed, post-test was administered to both groups. Univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data.
Results
The mean age of participants was 65.36 years in the experimental group and 64.96 years in the control group. Mean and deviation of positive thinking and life expectancy in the older men of the experimental and control groups showed increased scores in the experimental group (positive education program based on the PERMA model). Before conducting data analysis, it was determined that the distribution of scores was normal (P>0.05), and the assumption of similar variances was observed in the experimental and control groups (P>0.05). Besides, the assumption of equality of the observed covariance matrices of the dependent variable in the groups was fulfilled (P<0.05). The results in Table 1 show a significant difference between the experimental and control groups, indicating that the positive education program based on the PERMA was effective in improving positive thinking and life expectancy in older men. According to Table 1, the F statistics for the positive thinking and life expectancy in the post-test were 34.85 and 67.21, respectively. These statistics are significant at the 0.01 level, indicating a significant difference between the two groups in terms of these variables.
Conclusion
The results showed that the education program based on the PERMA model effectively improved positive thinking and life expectancy in older adults. The explanation of the first hypothesis demonstrated that the education program has a substantial impact on positive thinking, suggesting that this intervention can have long-term effects on older adults’ perceptions and psychological health. By emphasizing aspects of well-being, the PERMA model may potentially buffer the older adult population against poor mental health by enhancing subjective happiness and mental well-being.
The PERMA education program helps older adults discover meaning and purpose in their lives, enabling them to establish positive social relationships, promoting social integration, and receiving social support. Through the use of this education program, older adults are equipped to solve problems, find suitable solutions, and attain psychological satisfaction. Furthermore, the education program aids older adults in facing challenges of life, establishing positive relationships, and achieving their goals.
Ethical Consideration
Ethical Code
To comply with ethical standards in the research, this study, derived from a master’s thesis, was preregistered at Yasouj University.
Financial Support
This research was not sponsored by any institution, with all costs borne by the authors.
Authors’ Contributions
N.A: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Project Administration, Supervision; A.T: Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Data Curation, Visualization.
Conflict of Interest
The author had no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude to all participants whose contributions were integral to the completion of this research.
References
Arsalantas, H., Adana, D., Ergin, A., Kayar, D., & Acar, G. (2015). Loneliness in elderly people, associated factors and its
correlation with quality of life: A field study from Western Turkey. Journal of Public Health, 44(1), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdv095
Asebedo, S. D., & Seay, M. C. (2014). Positive psychological attributes and retirement satisfaction. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 25(2), 161-173.
Bailey, T., Winnieeng, A., Frisch, M. B., & Snyder, C. R. (2007). Hope and optimism as related to life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(3), 168-175. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701409629
Baily, T. C., & Snyder, C. R. (2007). Satisfaction with life and hope: A look at age and marital status. Psychological Record, 57(2), 233-240. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395574
Bajraktari, S., Sandlund, M., & Zingmark, M. (2020). Health-promoting and preventive interventions for community-dwelling older people published from inception to 2019: A scoping review to guide decision making in a Swedish municipality context. Archives of Public Health, 78, Article 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-020-00480-5
Bakhshi, N., Pashang, S., Jafari, N., & Ghorban-Shiroudi, S. H. (2020). Developing the model of psychological well-being in elderly based on life expectancy through mediation of death anxiety. Iranian Journal of Health Education & Health Promotion, 8(3), 283-293. [In Persian].
Banisi, P. (2019). The effectiveness of positivism training on subjective well-being, positive meta-emotion, and self-management ability in elderly women. Journal of Aging Psychology, 5(3), 217-227. [In Persian]
Bartholomaeus, J. D., Van Agteren, J. E. M., Iasiello, M. P., Jarden, A., & Kelly, D. (2019). Positive aging: The impact of a community wellbeing and resilience program. Clinical Gerontologist: The Journal of Aging and Mental Health, 42(4), 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2018.1561582
Bar-Tur, L. (2018). Positive aging: A program designed to enhance positive functioning and well-being in older adults. Journal of Aging Studies, 45, 93-112. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.517226
Brown, J. D. (1993). Self-esteem and self-evaluation: Feeling is believing. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 27-58). Erlbaum.
Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.52
Chaam, M., & Shams Ravandi, H. (2023). Comparison of anxiety, resilience, and life expectancy and explain their relationship in nurses and psychiatric nurses. Journal of New Idea Psychology, 17(21), 28-41. [In Persian]. http://jnip.ir/article-1-976-fa.html
Clevenger, C. (2022). Rural older adults’ wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies, 13271. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/13271
Colligan, E. M., Cross-Barnet, C., Lloyd, J. T., & McNeely, J. (2020). Barriers and facilitators to depression screening in older adults: A qualitative study. Aging & Mental Health, 24(2), 341-348.
Depp, A. C., Harmell, A. L., & Jeste, D. (2014). Strategies for successful aging: A research update. Current Psychiatry Reports, 16, 476-482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0476-6
Farnam, A. (2016). The effect of positive thinking training on enhancement of quality of life and hope among the elderly. Positive Psychology Research, 1(5), 75-88. [In Persian]
García-Alandete, J. (2015). Does meaning in life predict psychological well-being? The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 3(2), 89-98. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.52
Horgan, S., Prorok, J., Ellis, K., Mullaly, L., Cassidy, K. L., et al. (2024). Optimizing older adult mental health in support of healthy ageing: A pluralistic framework to inform transformative change across community and healthcare domains. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21, 664-673. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21060664
Khodayari Fardy, M., Ghobari Bonab, B., Akbari Zardkhaneh, S., Zamanpour, E., Derakhshan, M., & Musavi, S. (2015). Iranian Positive Thinking Scale (IPTS): Development and standardization. Research Psychological Applied, 5(4), 103-130. [In Persian].
Kim, M., Kim, A., Newman, J. I., Ferris, G. R., & Perrewe, P. (2019). The antecedents and consequences of positive organizational behavior: The role of psychological capital for promoting employee well-being in sport organizations. Sport Management Review, 22, 108-125.
Luke, P. G., Cheryl, L., Errichetti, C. H., Joan, B. B., & Luther, G. K. (2023). Self-report measurement of well-being in autistic adults: Psychometric properties of the PERMA Profiler. Autism in Adulthood, 5(4), 401-410. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2022.0049
Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(1), 57-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469809
Martinez, R., Morsch, P., Soliz, P., Hommes, C., Ordunez, P., & Vega, E. (2021). Life expectancy, healthy life expectancy, and burden of disease in older people in the Americas, 1990–2019: A population-based study. Pan American Journal of Public Health, 45, Article e114. https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2021.114
Miller, J. F., & Powers, M. J. (1988). Development of an instrument to measure hope. Nursing Research, 37(1), 6-10. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-198801000-00002
Mirshekar, S., Ahmadi, V., & Valizadeh, H. (2023). The relationship between activities of daily living and psychological distress in the elderly: The mediating role of loneliness. Aging Psychology, 9(3), 223-241. [In Persian]
Niclasen, J., Lund, L., Obel, C., & Larsen, L. (2019). Mental health interventions among older adults: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 47, 240-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494818773530
Parker, C., Kennedy-Behr, A., Wright, S., & Brown, T. (2023). Does the self-reported playfulness of older adults influence their wellbeing? An exploratory study. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(1), 86-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2022.2145993
Pourabdol, S., Abbasi, M., Pirani, Z., & Abbasi, M. (2015). The relationship between life expectancy and psychological well-being with quality of life in the elderly. Journal of Aging Psychology, 1(1), 57-65. [In Persian].
Quilliam, S. (2003). Optimism and positivism applications. (Trans. F. Barati Sadeh & A. Sadeghi). Javaneh Roshd Publications. [In Persian].
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Sarkar, S. (2009). Major trauma in the elderly. Trauma, 11, 157-161.
Sakhavat, T., Younas, M. R., & Nawaz, S. (2016). A study on life style and past times of retired people. Journal of Social Sciences, 1(6), 215-219.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2018). PERMA and building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410-421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Simon and Schuster.
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35, 293-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980902934563
Smedema, S. M., Chan, J. Y., & Phillips, B. N. (2014). Core self-evaluations and Snyder’s hope theory in persons with spinal cord injuries. Rehabilitation Psychology, 59(4), 399-406. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000015
Taghvaeinia, A., & Delavarizadeh, S. (2016). Effectiveness of group logotherapy on the increase of psychological well-being in elderly retired women. Aging Psychology, 2(2), 115-124. [In Persian].
Tavakoli, T., Rezai Dehnavi, S., & Montajabian, Z. (2020). The effectiveness of positive psychotherapy on vitality in the elderly. Aging Psychology, 6(4), 299-308. [In Persian]
Varlı, Ü., & Alankaya, N. (2022). Effect of health anxiety on disease perception and treatment compliance in elderly patients during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 40, 84-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2022.05.002
Viljoen, J. C. (2018). Investigating the use of the PERMA theory of wellbeing in the New Zealand General Social Survey. (Master’s thesis, Massey University). https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/12957/02_whole.pdf
Wang, R., Lu, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, P., Yao, Y., & Liu, Y. (2019). The relationship between visual enclosure for neighbourhood street walkability and elders’ mental health in China: Using Street view images. Journal of Transport & Health, 13, 90-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JTH.2019.02.009
White, M. A. (2016). Why won't it stick? Positive psychology and positive education. Psychology of Well-Being, 6, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13612-016-0039-1
Wong, S., & Lim, T. (2009). Hope versus optimism in Singaporean adolescents: Contributions to depression and life satisfaction. Psychological Studies. Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nan Yang Technological University.
World Health Organization. (2020). Decade of healthy ageing: Baseline report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Yang, T., Hshieh, T. T., Gartaganis, S. L., Yue, J., & Inouye, S. K. (2018). Hospital elder life program: Systematic review and meta-analysis of effectiveness. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(1), 1015-1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.06.007
Zhang, Z., & Zhang, J. (2017). Perceived residential environment of neighborhood and subjective well-being among the elderly in China: A mediating role of sense of community. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 51, 82-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.03.004

Keywords

Main Subjects


References
Arsalantas, H., Adana, D., Ergin, A., Kayar, D., & Acar, G. (2015). Loneliness in elderly people, associated factors and its
correlation with quality of life: A field study from Western Turkey. Journal of Public Health, 44(1), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdv095
Asebedo, S. D., & Seay, M. C. (2014). Positive psychological attributes and retirement satisfaction. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 25(2), 161-173.
Bailey, T., Winnieeng, A., Frisch, M. B., & Snyder, C. R. (2007). Hope and optimism as related to life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(3), 168-175. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701409629
Baily, T. C., & Snyder, C. R. (2007). Satisfaction with life and hope: A look at age and marital status. Psychological Record, 57(2), 233-240. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395574
Bajraktari, S., Sandlund, M., & Zingmark, M. (2020). Health-promoting and preventive interventions for community-dwelling older people published from inception to 2019: A scoping review to guide decision making in a Swedish municipality context. Archives of Public Health, 78, Article 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-020-00480-5
Bakhshi, N., Pashang, S., Jafari, N., & Ghorban-Shiroudi, S. H. (2020). Developing the model of psychological well-being in elderly based on life expectancy through mediation of death anxiety. Iranian Journal of Health Education & Health Promotion, 8(3), 283-293. [In Persian].
Banisi, P. (2019). The effectiveness of positivism training on subjective well-being, positive meta-emotion, and self-management ability in elderly women. Journal of Aging Psychology, 5(3), 217-227. [In Persian]
Bartholomaeus, J. D., Van Agteren, J. E. M., Iasiello, M. P., Jarden, A., & Kelly, D. (2019). Positive aging: The impact of a community wellbeing and resilience program. Clinical Gerontologist: The Journal of Aging and Mental Health, 42(4), 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2018.1561582
Bar-Tur, L. (2018). Positive aging: A program designed to enhance positive functioning and well-being in older adults. Journal of Aging Studies, 45, 93-112. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.517226
Brown, J. D. (1993). Self-esteem and self-evaluation: Feeling is believing. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 27-58). Erlbaum.
Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.52
Chaam, M., & Shams Ravandi, H. (2023). Comparison of anxiety, resilience, and life expectancy and explain their relationship in nurses and psychiatric nurses. Journal of New Idea Psychology, 17(21), 28-41. [In Persian]. http://jnip.ir/article-1-976-fa.html
Clevenger, C. (2022). Rural older adults’ wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies, 13271. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/13271
Colligan, E. M., Cross-Barnet, C., Lloyd, J. T., & McNeely, J. (2020). Barriers and facilitators to depression screening in older adults: A qualitative study. Aging & Mental Health, 24(2), 341-348.
Depp, A. C., Harmell, A. L., & Jeste, D. (2014). Strategies for successful aging: A research update. Current Psychiatry Reports, 16, 476-482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0476-6
Farnam, A. (2016). The effect of positive thinking training on enhancement of quality of life and hope among the elderly. Positive Psychology Research, 1(5), 75-88. [In Persian]
García-Alandete, J. (2015). Does meaning in life predict psychological well-being? The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 3(2), 89-98. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.52
Horgan, S., Prorok, J., Ellis, K., Mullaly, L., Cassidy, K. L., et al. (2024). Optimizing older adult mental health in support of healthy ageing: A pluralistic framework to inform transformative change across community and healthcare domains. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21, 664-673. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21060664
Khodayari Fardy, M., Ghobari Bonab, B., Akbari Zardkhaneh, S., Zamanpour, E., Derakhshan, M., & Musavi, S. (2015). Iranian Positive Thinking Scale (IPTS): Development and standardization. Research Psychological Applied, 5(4), 103-130. [In Persian].
Kim, M., Kim, A., Newman, J. I., Ferris, G. R., & Perrewe, P. (2019). The antecedents and consequences of positive organizational behavior: The role of psychological capital for promoting employee well-being in sport organizations. Sport Management Review, 22, 108-125.
Luke, P. G., Cheryl, L., Errichetti, C. H., Joan, B. B., & Luther, G. K. (2023). Self-report measurement of well-being in autistic adults: Psychometric properties of the PERMA Profiler. Autism in Adulthood, 5(4), 401-410. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2022.0049
Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(1), 57-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469809
Martinez, R., Morsch, P., Soliz, P., Hommes, C., Ordunez, P., & Vega, E. (2021). Life expectancy, healthy life expectancy, and burden of disease in older people in the Americas, 1990–2019: A population-based study. Pan American Journal of Public Health, 45, Article e114. https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2021.114
Miller, J. F., & Powers, M. J. (1988). Development of an instrument to measure hope. Nursing Research, 37(1), 6-10. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-198801000-00002
Mirshekar, S., Ahmadi, V., & Valizadeh, H. (2023). The relationship between activities of daily living and psychological distress in the elderly: The mediating role of loneliness. Aging Psychology, 9(3), 223-241. [In Persian]
Niclasen, J., Lund, L., Obel, C., & Larsen, L. (2019). Mental health interventions among older adults: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 47, 240-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494818773530
Parker, C., Kennedy-Behr, A., Wright, S., & Brown, T. (2023). Does the self-reported playfulness of older adults influence their wellbeing? An exploratory study. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(1), 86-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2022.2145993
Pourabdol, S., Abbasi, M., Pirani, Z., & Abbasi, M. (2015). The relationship between life expectancy and psychological well-being with quality of life in the elderly. Journal of Aging Psychology, 1(1), 57-65. [In Persian].
Quilliam, S. (2003). Optimism and positivism applications. (Trans. F. Barati Sadeh & A. Sadeghi). Javaneh Roshd Publications. [In Persian].
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Sarkar, S. (2009). Major trauma in the elderly. Trauma, 11, 157-161.
Sakhavat, T., Younas, M. R., & Nawaz, S. (2016). A study on life style and past times of retired people. Journal of Social Sciences, 1(6), 215-219.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2018). PERMA and building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410-421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Simon and Schuster.
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35, 293-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980902934563
Smedema, S. M., Chan, J. Y., & Phillips, B. N. (2014). Core self-evaluations and Snyder’s hope theory in persons with spinal cord injuries. Rehabilitation Psychology, 59(4), 399-406. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000015
Taghvaeinia, A., & Delavarizadeh, S. (2016). Effectiveness of group logotherapy on the increase of psychological well-being in elderly retired women. Aging Psychology, 2(2), 115-124. [In Persian].
Tavakoli, T., Rezai Dehnavi, S., & Montajabian, Z. (2020). The effectiveness of positive psychotherapy on vitality in the elderly. Aging Psychology, 6(4), 299-308. [In Persian]
Varlı, Ü., & Alankaya, N. (2022). Effect of health anxiety on disease perception and treatment compliance in elderly patients during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 40, 84-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2022.05.002
Viljoen, J. C. (2018). Investigating the use of the PERMA theory of wellbeing in the New Zealand General Social Survey. (Master’s thesis, Massey University). https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/12957/02_whole.pdf
Wang, R., Lu, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, P., Yao, Y., & Liu, Y. (2019). The relationship between visual enclosure for neighbourhood street walkability and elders’ mental health in China: Using Street view images. Journal of Transport & Health, 13, 90-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JTH.2019.02.009
White, M. A. (2016). Why won't it stick? Positive psychology and positive education. Psychology of Well-Being, 6, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13612-016-0039-1
Wong, S., & Lim, T. (2009). Hope versus optimism in Singaporean adolescents: Contributions to depression and life satisfaction. Psychological Studies. Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nan Yang Technological University.
World Health Organization. (2020). Decade of healthy ageing: Baseline report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Yang, T., Hshieh, T. T., Gartaganis, S. L., Yue, J., & Inouye, S. K. (2018). Hospital elder life program: Systematic review and meta-analysis of effectiveness. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(1), 1015-1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.06.007
Zhang, Z., & Zhang, J. (2017). Perceived residential environment of neighborhood and subjective well-being among the elderly in China: A mediating role of sense of community. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 51, 82-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.03.004